SAMPLE DOCUMENTS OF REFINERY DIGTAL LIBRARY

Natural gas (also called fossil gas) is a naturally occurring hydrocarbon gas mixture consisting primarily of methane, but commonly including varying amounts of other higher alkanes, and sometimes a small percentage of carbon dioxide, nitrogen, hydrogen sulfide, or helium. It is formed when layers of decomposing plant and animal matter are exposed to intense heat and pressure under the surface of the Earth over millions of years. The energy that the plants originally obtained from the sun is stored in the form of chemical bonds in the gas.

Natural gas is a non-renewable hydrocarbon used as a source of energy for heating, cooking, and electricity generation. It is also used as a fuel for vehicles and as a chemical feedstock in the manufacture of plastics and other commercially important organic chemicals.

Further read: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_gas

In electrical engineering, hazardous locations (sometimes abbreviated to HazLoc, pronounced Haz·Lōk) are defined as places where fire or explosion hazards may exist due to flammable gases, flammable liquid–produced vapors, combustible liquid–produced vapors, combustible dusts, or ignitable fibers/flyings present in the air in quantities sufficient to produce explosive or ignitable mixtures. Electrical equipment that must be installed in such classified locations should be specially designed and tested to ensure it does not initiate an explosion, due to arcing contacts or high surface temperature of equipment.

The introduction of electrical apparatus for signaling or lighting in coal mines was accompanied by electrically-initiated explosions of flammable gas and dust. Technical standards were developed to identify the features of electrical apparatus that would prevent electrical initiation of explosions due to energy or thermal effects. Several physical methods of protection are used. The apparatus may be designed to prevent entry of flammable gas or dust into the interior. The apparatus may be strong enough to contain and cool any combustion gases produced internally. Or, electrical devices may be designed so that they cannot produce a spark strong enough or temperatures high enough to ignite a specified hazardous gas. Integrating these types of motors can ensure that equipment, facilities, and workers stay protected and machinery is not damaged.  

Further read:  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_equipment_in_hazardous_areas   

Petroleum refining processes are the chemical engineering processes and other facilities used in petroleum refineries (also referred to as oil refineries) to transform crude oil into useful products such as liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), gasoline or petrol, kerosene, jet fuel, diesel oil and fuel oils.^[1][2][3]

Petroleum refineries are very large industrial complexes that involve many different processing units and auxiliary facilities such as utility units and storage tanks. Each refinery has its own unique arrangement and combination of refining processes largely determined by the refinery location, desired products and economic considerations.

Some modern petroleum refineries process as much as 800,000 to 900,000 barrels (127,000 to 143,000 cubic meters) per day of crude oil.

FEED stands for Front End Engineering Design. The FEED is basic engineering which comes after the Conceptual design or Feasibility study. The FEED design focuses the technical requirements as well as rough investment cost for the project. The FEED can be divided into seperate packages covering different portions of the project. The FEED package is used as the basis for bidding the Execution Phase Contracts (EPC, EPCI, etc) and is used as the design basis.

A good FEED will reflect all the clients project specific requirements and avoid significant changes during the execution phase. FEED Contracts usually take around 1 year to complete for larger sized projects. During the FEED phase there is close communication between Project Owners and Operators and the Engineering Contractor to work up the project specific requirements.

TYPICAL RECOMENDED CONSTRUCTION PERIOD ORGANIZATION CHARTConstruction projects are highly structured endeavors, whether that’s building a shopping mall or a single-dwelling residence. They have a lot of moving parts and people that must be precisely coordinated.Just like any other project, construction project management has phases, from design to planning to scheduling to the build itself. Each of these phases are complicated enough by themselves, but in congress with the whole project, they grow exponentially more complex.That’s why there’s project management software. But is a project management software robust and dynamic enough to carry the weight of a construction project? Before answering that question, it’s important to first have an understanding of what exactly construction project management is.

Further read: https://www.projectmanager.com/construction-project-management

Equipment layout  is the detailing of conceptual layout. It is the basic document of mechanical engineering design or in other words this document is the basis for development of construction drawing by all disciplines. It is sometimes also referred as plot plan for large outdoor plant. Equipment layout consists of following information floor space needed for the equipment and other facilities are shown and access, removal space, cleaning area, storage space and handling facilities are outlined.

Process flow diagrams (PFD) and Piping & instrument Diagrams (P& ID). PFD/ P& ID indicates the inter-connectivity of each equipment, information regarding solid handling, gravity feed, line slopes, loop sizes, venting requirement, special piping materials etc. which in turns governs the equipment location to a great extent.

Flaring is undertaken as a way to remove dangerous gasses with lower harm to the environment. It is used in safely regulating pressure in chemical plants, as well as handling natural gas release in wells. Alternatives, such as piping the gas to a plant or on-site capture and use, are of great interest.

In the U.S., flaring accounts for an estimated 9% of the greenhouse gas emissions of the oil and gas industry. In addition, the practice spews particulate matter, soot and toxins into the air that have been shown to be hazardous to humans.

From the very nature of crude oil, its refining and the processes relating to its operation provide an extremely hazardous situation. Above all, of course, is the inherent danger of fire. Considerable steps are taken therefore to prevent this, and if a fire does occur, to combat and restrain it in the most effective manner.

Although the fire hazard is always the primary concern in the refining of petroleum, there are other hazards that are present and always need to be addressed. Among these are the handling of toxic and dangerous chemicals that are used in the refining processes. There is also always present the danger to life of toxic products that are produced in some of the refining processes. Perhaps the most notable is hydrogen sulfide, which is common to all modern refineries.

The report briefly describes the consecutive steps in the identification, assessment and comparison of hazards and associated risk. These techniques can be helpful in setting the priorities for the decision on measures to reduce risk.When quantifying risk for the comparison of alternative cases, the use of a consistent data base is stressed. It is pointed out that the risk assessment techniques described in the report, although potentially valuable tools for improving overall safety performance, have short-comings particularly in dealing with human factors. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF02389992

Cryptocurrency is reshaping modern history. The decentralized currency has caught a lot of attention. People are using it for investments. Companies for launching ICO (Initial Coin Offerings) for fundraising. Even some Countries have got involved and started launching their own Cryptocurrencies. But in this mix, there are also people as well as nations who are against these alternative currencies. Many famous personalities are publicly proclaiming that Cryptocurrencies are dead and that it was a big bubble. Furthermore, in some parts of the world, the digital currency is illegal and people are barred from investing or using the medium. With all these in perspective, there is no doubt that the decentralized currency is taking the world by storm. It falls under ones of those categories where you can love it or hate it, but you can’t ignore it. To properly evaluate its impact, we have put together some awesome statistics on cryptocurrency. So without further ado, let’s get started:

Our experts have the knowledge and experience to successfully design a wide range of maritime features associated with liquid bulk terminals. This includes the design of liquid bulk jetties with careful consideration given to the interactions between the jetty superstructure and the jetty itself, as well as accounting for the additional loads imposed by the weight of the jetty superstructure. This requires careful analysis of ground conditions and thorough consideration given to foundation piles for the structure.EURASIA also specialises in providing engineering services for a number of other aspects of liquid bulk terminals, such as intakes and outfalls, dredging, quay wall structures and the design of mechanical and electrical services. Additionally, EURASIA can carry out studies to provide advice and information; these include wave and flow modelling, navigation studies, vessel simulation, traffic analyses, mooring simulations and sedimentation modelling.

World Health Organisation (WHO) statistics for 2014 show Russian particle pollution (also called particulate matter or PM) of fine particles up to 2.5mm in diameter at an annual 22mg, and coarse particles (between 2.5 and 10mm in diameter) at 30mg per head of population. The corresponding figures for China are 40mg and 90mg; for the UK 14mg and 20 mg. According to global statistics, Russia’s air pollution levels are slightly higher than the European average, but much lower than in China and India. These overall figures do not, however, take into account Russia’s particular conditions.  

For a start, its people are very unevenly distributed over its enormous territory, with more than two thirds living in European Russia. They are also heavily concentrated in urban areas – 15 cities have more than a million inhabitants – where high population density means a greater threat to the environment. Some heavily industrialised Russian cities, including, for example, Norilsk in remote Siberia, regularly feature in lists of the most polluted cities in the world.

Many different data sources are available to estimate the construction cost of a refinery unit, including government organizations, private and public companies, commercial databases, trade and academic publications, and press releases for licensors and companies.

Oil & Gas Journal and Hydrocarbon Processing semiannually report planned capacity expansions for refineries (OGJ Apr. 16, 2007, p. 18). The data coverage is similar in both surveys and provides information on refining capacity that will be added at each location by project type (increment of capacity added; total capacity after construction; revamping, modernization or debottlenecking; expansion); licensor, engineering company, and constructor; estimated completion date; estimated cost; and project status (abandoned, engineering, feed, completed, maintenance, planning, under construction). The data are subject to availability, and because project descriptions are not provided, are of limited use for cost estimation. The best public sources of information for cost data are technical articles found in OGJ and other trade publications, material presented at such professional conferences as National Petrochemical and Refining Association’s annual meeting, and industry studies. Robert Meyer’s “Handbook of Petroleum Refining Processes” is an excellent source of process and economic data for a wide compendium of technologies. Maples, Raseev, Sadeghbeigi, and various other texts provide cost estimates for mid-1990 and earlier configurations and technologies.3-6

Drilling Rigs are one of the most important pieces of oilfield equipment and are used during a number of stages throughout the life cycle of oil and gas fields. Land drilling rigs can be of different sizes, power capabilities and used in different applications. Each rig type serves a different purpose and is best suited to a particular drilling environment. Key differentiation factors in drilling rigs are: Lifting capacity, Horse power, Number of mud pumps and its power and ability to circulate drilling fluid, Size

While mobile rigs have a limited use, light conventional rigs are the most widely used. However, with shale drilling, multilaterals, directional wells, HP/HT and sour wells, the use of hi-tech and high horse power rigs has been gaining momentum and the demand for these heavy rigs have been increasing. In addition, ambient temperatures (e.g. deserts) can place more pressure on land drilling rig efficiency.  Below is summary of how land rigs are used throughout the life cycle of oil and gas fields.

UNDER CONSTRUCTION

Purpose of crude oil desalting, Crude oil introduced to refinery processing contains many undesirable impurities, such as sand, inorganic salts, drilling mud, polymer, corrosion byproduct, etc. The salt content in the crude oil varies depending on source of the crude oil.  When a mixture from many crude oil sources is processed in refinery, the salt content can vary greatly. The purpose of desalting is to remove these undesirable impurities, especially salts and water, from the crude oil prior to distillation. The most concerns of the impurities in crude oil: The Inorganic salts can be decomposed in the crude oil pre-heat exchangers and heaters. As a result, hydrogen chloride gas is formed which condenses to liquid hydrochloric acid at overhead system of distillation column, that may causes serious corrosion of equipment. To avoid corrosion due to salts in the crude oil, corrosion control can be used. But the byproduct from the corrosion control of oil field equipment consists of particulate iron sulfide and oxide. Precipitation of these materials can cause plugging of heat exchanger trains, tower trays, heater tubes, etc. In addition, these materials can cause corrosion to any surface they are precipitated on. The sand or silt can cause significant damage due to abrasion or erosion to pumps, pipelines, etc. The calcium naphthanate compound in the crude unit residue stream, if not removed can result in the production of lower grade coke and deactivation of catalyst of FCC unit